Reports

Visa and Mastercard

Visa and Mastercard in court: the court ruling that questions the balance between efficiency and competition.

Oct, 2025

On 27 June 2025, the UK Competition Appeal Tribunal ruled against Visa and Mastercard for imposing fees that violate competition laws. The court noted that these fees limit competition and distort the market. Based on Article 101 of the EU Treaty, the decision sets a precedent by declaring certain international and corporate fees illegal. The case reopens the debate on how to balance efficiency and competition in the global financial system.

Shadow banking

Shadow banking: the hidden side of finance that challenges traditional banking

Jun, 2025

Shadow banking is growing rapidly thanks to fintechs, investment funds and insurance companies operating outside banking regulations. Their opacity, interconnectedness and leverage pose systemic risks that are reigniting the debate on the need for greater international supervision.

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